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Were the Native Americans Forced to Travel the Trail of Tears

Written By Thursday 12 May 2022 Add Comment Edit

Forced relocation of the southeastern Native American tribes

Trail of Tears
Role of Indian removal
TrailofTearsMemorial-3.jpg

The Trail of Tears memorial at the New Echota Historic Site in Georgia, which honors the Cherokees who died on the Trail of Tears
Location Southeastern Us and Indian Territory

Set on blazon

 Forced displacement
Ethnic cleansing[1] [two]
Deaths Cherokee (4,000)
Creek
Seminole (3,000 in Second Seminole War – 1835–1842)
Chickasaw (3,500)
Choctaw (2,500–vi,000)
Ponca (200)
Victims "Five Civilized Tribes" of Cherokee, Muscogee, Seminole, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Ponca and Ho-Chunk/Winnebago nations
Perpetrators U.Southward. Federal Government, U.Due south. Army, state militias
Motive Conquering of Native American state east of the Mississippi River.

The Trail of Tears was a series of forced displacements of approximately threescore,000 American Indians of the "Five Civilized Tribes" betwixt 1830 and 1850 by the United States government.[iii] Part of the Indian removal, the ethnic cleansing was gradual, occurring over a period of most two decades.[iv] Members of the so-chosen "5 Civilized Tribes"—the Cherokee, Muscogee (Creek), Seminole, Chickasaw, and Choctaw nations (including thousands of their blackness slaves[5])—were forcibly removed from their ancestral homelands in the Southeastern United States to areas to the due west of the Mississippi River that had been designated Indian Territory.[3] The forced relocations were carried out by government authorities after the passage of the Indian Removal Act in 1830.[6] The Cherokee removal in 1838 (the last forced removal east of the Mississippi) was brought on by the discovery of aureate near Dahlonega, Georgia, in 1828, resulting in the Georgia Gilded Rush.[seven]

The relocated peoples suffered from exposure, illness, and starvation while en road to their newly designated Indian reserve. Thousands died from disease before reaching their destinations or shortly after.[8] [ix] [x] [11] [12] According to Native American activist Suzan Shown Harjo of the Smithsonian's National Museum of the American Indian, the event constituted a genocide,[13] although this label has been rejected past historian Gary Clayton Anderson.[14]

Historical context

A map of the process of Indian Removal, 1830–1838. Oklahoma is depicted in light yellow-dark-green.

In 1830, a group of Indian nations, collectively referred to as the "Five Civilized Tribes" (the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Muscogee, and Seminole nations), were living autonomously in what would after be termed the American Deep Due south. The process of cultural transformation from their traditional mode of life towards a white American way of life as proposed by George Washington and Henry Knox was gaining momentum, especially amid the Cherokee and Choctaw.[15] [xvi]

American settlers had been pressuring the federal government to remove Indians from the Southeast; many settlers were encroaching on Indian lands, while others wanted more than state made available to the settlers. Although the try was vehemently opposed by some, including U.S. Congressman Davy Crockett of Tennessee, President Andrew Jackson was able to proceeds Congressional passage of the Indian Removal Act of 1830, which authorized the authorities to extinguish any Indian title to land claims in the Southeast.

In 1831, the Choctaw became the first Nation to be removed, and their removal served every bit the model for all future relocations. After two wars, many Seminoles were removed in 1832. The Creek removal followed in 1834, the Chickasaw in 1837, and lastly the Cherokee in 1838.[17] Some managed to evade the removals, however, and remained in their ancestral homelands; some Choctaw nevertheless reside in Mississippi, Creek in Alabama and Florida, Cherokee in North Carolina, and Seminole in Florida. A small grouping of Seminole, fewer than 500, evaded forced removal; the mod Seminole Nation of Florida is descended from these individuals.[xviii] A small number of not-Indians who lived with the nations, including some of African descent (including over iv,000 slaves, and others such as spouses or Freedmen), also accompanied the Indians on the expedition westward.[17] By 1837, 46,000 Indians from the southeastern states had been removed from their homelands, thereby opening 25 million acres (100,000 km2) for white settlement.[17] [xix] When the "Five Tribes" arrived in Indian Territory, "they followed their physical appropriation of Plains Indians' land with an erasure of their predecessor'due south history", and "perpetuated the idea that they had found an undeveloped 'wilderness" when they arrived" in an attempt to appeal to white American values by participating in the settler colonial process themselves. Other Indian nations, such as the Quapaws and Osages had moved to Indian Territory earlier the "Five Tribes" and saw them every bit intruders.[20]

Before 1838, the fixed boundaries of these autonomous Indian nations, comprising large areas of the United States, were subject to continual cession and looting, in function due to pressure from squatters and the threat of armed services forcefulness in the newly declared U.Due south. territories—federally administered regions whose boundaries supervened upon the Native treaty claims. Equally these territories became U.Southward. states, state governments sought to deliquesce the boundaries of the Indian nations within their borders, which were independent of state jurisdiction, and to expropriate the state therein. These pressures were exacerbated by U.S. population growth and the expansion of slavery in the South, with the rapid development of cotton fiber cultivation in the uplands later on the invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney.[21]

Jackson's role

Andrew Jackson's support for the removal of the Indians began at to the lowest degree a decade before his presidency.[22] Indian removal was Jackson'southward peak legislative priority upon taking office.[23] The removals, conducted under both Presidents Jackson and Van Buren, followed the Indian Removal Deed of 1830, which provided the president with powers to exchange land with Indian nations and provide infrastructure improvements on the existing lands. The law also gave the president power to pay for transportation costs to the West, should the nations willingly choose to relocate. The law did non, however, let the president to force Indian nations to motion west without a mutually agreed-upon treaty.[24] Referring to the Indian Removal Act, Martin Van Buren, Jackson'due south vice president and successor, is quoted as saying "There was no measure out, in the whole class of [Jackson's] administration, of which he was more exclusively the author than this."[23]

In the years subsequently the Act, the Cherokee filed several lawsuits regarding conflicts with the land of Georgia. Some of these cases reached the Supreme Court, the most influential existence Worcester 5. Georgia (1832). Samuel Worcester and other non-Indians were bedevilled by Georgia law for residing in Cherokee territory in the state of Georgia without a license. Worcester was sentenced to prison for iv years and appealed the ruling, arguing that this sentence violated treaties fabricated between Indian nations and the The states federal government by imposing state laws on Cherokee lands. The Court ruled in Worcester's favor, declaring that the Cherokee Nation was subject only to federal police and that the Supremacy Clause barred legislative interference by the state of Georgia. Main Justice Marshall argued, "The Cherokee nation, then, is a distinct customs occupying its ain territory in which the laws of Georgia tin have no force. The whole intercourse between the Usa and this Nation, is, by our constitution and laws, vested in the government of the United States."[25]

Andrew Jackson did not listen to the Supreme Courtroom mandate disallowment Georgia from intruding on Cherokee lands. He feared that enforcement would lead to open warfare between federal troops and the Georgia militia, which would chemical compound the ongoing crisis in S Carolina and pb to a broader ceremonious war. Instead, he vigorously negotiated a land exchange treaty with the Cherokee.[26] Political opponents Henry Clay and John Quincy Adams, who supported the Worcester decision, were outraged by Jackson's refusal to uphold Cherokee claims against the land of Georgia.[27] Author and political activist Ralph Waldo Emerson wrote an account of Cherokee assimilation into the American culture, declaring his back up of the Worcester decision.[28]

Jackson chose to continue with Indian removal, and negotiated the Treaty of New Echota, on December 29, 1835, which granted the Cherokee two years to move to Indian Territory (mod-day Oklahoma). Merely a fraction of the Cherokees left voluntarily. The U.S. government, with assistance from state militias, forced almost of the remaining Cherokees westward in 1838.[29] The Cherokees were temporarily remanded in camps in eastern Tennessee. In November, the Cherokee were broken into groups of effectually i,000 each and began the journey due west. They endured heavy rains, snow, and freezing temperatures.

When the Cherokee negotiated the Treaty of New Echota, they exchanged all their land east of the Mississippi for state in modern Oklahoma and a $5 million payment from the federal government. Many Cherokee felt betrayed that their leadership accepted the deal, and over 16,000 Cherokee signed a petition to foreclose the passage of the treaty. Past the stop of the decade in 1840, tens of thousands of Cherokee and other Indian nations had been removed from their land due east of the Mississippi River. The Creek, Choctaw, Seminole, and Chicksaw were also relocated nether the Indian Removal Act of 1830. One Choctaw leader portrayed the removal as "A Trail of Tears and Deaths", a devastating result that removed virtually of the Native population of the southeastern United States from their traditional homelands.[thirty]

Terminology

The forced relocations and ethnic cleansings of the Indian nations have sometimes been referred to every bit "death marches", in detail when referring to the Cherokee march beyond the Midwest in 1838, which occurred via a predominantly land road.[21]

Indians who had the means initially provided for their own removal. Contingents that were led by conductors from the U.South. Army included those led by Edward Deas, who was claimed to exist a sympathizer for the Cherokee plight.[ citation needed ] The largest death toll from the Cherokee forced relocation comes from the period afterward the May 23, 1838 deadline. This was at the point when the remaining Cherokee were rounded up into camps and placed into large groups, frequently over 700 in size (larger than the populations of Little Rock or Memphis at that time). Communicable diseases spread quickly through these closely quartered groups, killing many. These groups were among the last to motion, just following the same routes the others had taken; the areas they were going through had been depleted of supplies due to the vast numbers that had gone before them. The marchers were subject area to extortion and violence along the road. In add-on, these terminal contingents were forced to set out during the hottest and coldest months of the year, killing many. Exposure to the elements, disease, starvation, harassment by local frontiersmen, and insufficient rations similarly killed up to one-3rd of the Choctaw and other nations on the march.[31]

At that place exists some debate among historians and the affected nations as to whether the term "Trail of Tears" should be used to refer to the entire history of forced relocations from the United states east of the Mississippi into Indian Territory (equally was the stated U.Southward. policy), to the five Indian nations described higher up, to the route of the land march specifically, or to specific marches in which the remaining holdouts from each area were rounded up.

Legal background

The territorial boundaries claimed every bit sovereign and controlled by the Indian nations living in what were and so known as the Indian Territories—the portion of the early Us westward of the Mississippi River not yet claimed or allotted to become Oklahoma—were fixed and adamant by national treaties with the Usa federal government. These recognized the tribal governments as dependent merely internally sovereign, or autonomous nations under the sole jurisdiction of the federal government.

While retaining their tribal governance, which included a constitution or official quango in nations such as the Iroquois and Cherokee, many portions of the southeastern Indian nations had get partially or completely economically integrated into the economy of the region. This included the plantation economy in states such equally Georgia, and the possession of slaves. These slaves were besides forcibly relocated during the procedure of removal.[21]

Under the history of U.S. treaty law, the territorial boundaries claimed by federally recognized Indian nations received the same status under which the Southeastern tribal claims were recognized; until the following institution of reservations of land, determined past the federal government, which were ceded to the remaining Indian nations by de jure treaty, in a process that often entailed forced relocation. The establishment of the Indian Territory and the extinguishment of Indian country claims e of the Mississippi anticipated the establishment of the U.S. Indian reservation organization. It was imposed on remaining Indian lands later in the 19th century.

The statutory argument for Indian sovereignty persisted until the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831), that (eastward.g.) the Cherokee were not a sovereign and independent nation, and therefore not entitled to a hearing before the court. However, in Worcester v. Georgia (1832), the court re-established limited internal sovereignty under the sole jurisdiction of the federal regime, in a ruling that both opposed the subsequent forced relocation and prepare the ground for modern U.S. case constabulary.

While the latter ruling was defied by Jackson,[32] the actions of the Jackson administration were not isolated because state and federal officials had violated treaties without upshot, often attributed to military exigency, as the members of individual Indian nations were non automatically United States citizens and were rarely given standing in whatsoever U.S. courtroom.

Jackson's involvement in what became known as the Trail of Tears shaped what occurred immensely: in a speech regarding Indian removal, Jackson said,

It will separate the Indians from immediate contact with settlements of whites; free them from the ability of united states of america; enable them to pursue happiness in their own way and nether their own rude institutions; will retard the progress of disuse, which is lessening their numbers, and maybe crusade them gradually, under the protection of the Government and through the influence of skilful counsels, to bandage off their savage habits and become an interesting, civilized, and Christian customs.

According to Jackson, the motility would be nothing only beneficial for all parties. His signal of view garnered support from many Americans, many of whom would benefit economically from the forced removals.

This was compounded by the fact that while citizenship tests existed for Indians living in newly annexed areas before and after forced relocation, individual U.S. states did not recognize the Indian nations' land claims, but individual championship under State law, and distinguished between the rights of white and non-white citizens, who often had limited standing in court; and Indian removal was carried out nether U.Southward. military jurisdiction, frequently past state militias. Every bit a result, individual Indians who could show U.S. citizenship were nevertheless displaced from newly annexed areas.[21] The armed forces actions and subsequent treaties enacted by Jackson'south and Martin Van Buren'south administrations pursuant to the 1830 law, which Tennessee Congressman Davy Crockett had unsuccessfully voted against,[33] are widely considered to have directly caused the expulsion or death of a substantial part of the Indian population so living in the southeastern U.s.a..

Choctaw removal

The Choctaw nation resided in big portions of what are now the U.S. states of Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana. After a series of treaties starting in 1801, the Choctaw nation was reduced to 11 million acres (45,000 km2). The Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek ceded the remaining country to the Us and was ratified in early on 1831. The removals were only agreed to after a provision in the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek allowed some Choctaw to remain. The chief of the Choctaw nation, George Due west. Harkins, wrote to the citizens of the United states earlier the removals were to commence:

It is with considerable diffidence that I attempt to address the American people, knowing and feeling sensibly my incompetency; and believing that your highly and well-improved minds would not be well entertained by the address of a Choctaw. But having determined to emigrate west of the Mississippi river this fall, I have thought proper in bidding yous farewell to brand a few remarks expressive of my views, and the feelings that actuate me on the subject of our removal... We as Choctaws rather chose to suffer and be costless, than alive under the degrading influence of laws, which our phonation could not be heard in their formation.

—George W. Harkins, George W. Harkins to the American People[34]

U.s.a. Secretary of War Lewis Cass appointed George Gaines to manage the removals. Gaines decided to remove Choctaws in three phases starting in 1831 and ending in 1833. The first was to begin on November one, 1831, with groups meeting at Memphis and Vicksburg. A harsh winter would concoction the emigrants with flash floods, sleet, and snow. Initially, the Choctaws were to be transported by railroad vehicle but floods halted them. With food running out, the residents of Vicksburg and Memphis were concerned. Five steamboats (the Walter Scott, the Brandywine, the Reindeer, the Talma, and the Cleopatra) would ferry Choctaws to their river-based destinations. The Memphis grouping traveled up the Arkansas for virtually 60 miles (100 km) to Arkansas Mail service. There the temperature stayed beneath freezing for virtually a week with the rivers clogged with ice, so there could be no travel for weeks. Food rationing consisted of a scattering of boiled corn, one turnip, and two cups of heated water per day. Forty regime wagons were sent to Arkansas Mail service to ship them to Petty Stone. When they reached Niggling Rock, a Choctaw chief referred to their expedition as a "trail of tears and expiry".[35] The Vicksburg group was led by an incompetent guide and was lost in the Lake Providence swamps.

Alexis de Tocqueville, the French philosopher, witnessed the Choctaw removals while in Memphis, Tennessee in 1831:

In the whole scene there was an air of ruin and devastation, something which betrayed a last and irrevocable adieu; one couldn't lookout without feeling one'southward heart wrung. The Indians were tranquil just somber and taciturn. At that place was one who could speak English and of whom I asked why the Chactas were leaving their land. "To exist free," he answered, could never get whatsoever other reason out of him. Nosotros ... watch the expulsion ... of one of the most celebrated and ancient American peoples.

—Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America[36]

Virtually 17,000 Choctaws fabricated the move to what would be called Indian Territory and and so after Oklahoma.[37] Well-nigh 2,500–6,000 died along the trail of tears. Approximately five,000–6,000 Choctaws remained in Mississippi in 1831 subsequently the initial removal efforts.[31] [38] The Choctaws who chose to remain in newly formed Mississippi were subject to legal conflict, harassment, and intimidation. The Choctaws "have had our habitations torn downwardly and burned, our fences destroyed, cattle turned into our fields and nosotros ourselves have been scourged, manacled, fettered and otherwise personally abused, until by such treatment some of our best men have died".[38] The Choctaws in Mississippi were after reformed as the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians and the removed Choctaws became the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma. The Choctaws were the first to sign a removal treaty presented by the federal government. President Andrew Jackson wanted strong negotiations with the Choctaws in Mississippi, and the Choctaws seemed much more cooperative than Andrew Jackson had imagined. When commissioners and Choctaws came to negotiation agreements it was said the The states would bear the expense of moving their homes and that they had to be removed within two and a half years of the signed treaty.[39]

Seminole resistance

The U.Due south. acquired Florida from Spain via the Adams–Onís Treaty and took possession in 1821. In 1832 the Seminoles were called to a coming together at Payne'due south Landing on the Ocklawaha River. The Treaty of Payne'due south Landing chosen for the Seminoles to motility west, if the land were found to be suitable. They were to be settled on the Creek reservation and become part of the Creek nation, who considered them deserters[ full commendation needed ]; some of the Seminoles had been derived from Creek bands but as well from other Indian nations. Those among the nation who in one case were members of Creek bands did not wish to motility west to where they were sure that they would come across expiry for leaving the main band of Creek Indians. The delegation of vii chiefs who were to inspect the new reservation did not leave Florida until October 1832. After touring the area for several months and conferring with the Creeks who had already settled there, the seven chiefs signed a statement on March 28, 1833, that the new land was acceptable. Upon their return to Florida, however, most of the chiefs renounced the argument, claiming that they had not signed it, or that they had been forced to sign it, and in any case, that they did not have the power to decide for all the Indian nations and bands that resided on the reservation. The villages in the expanse of the Apalachicola River were more than easily persuaded, still, and went westward in 1834.[xl] On December 28, 1835, a grouping of Seminoles and blacks ambushed a U.Due south. Regular army company marching from Fort Brooke in Tampa to Fort King in Ocala, killing all simply three of the 110 army troops. This came to be known every bit the Dade Massacre.

As the realization that the Seminoles would resist relocation sank in, Florida began preparing for war. The St. Augustine Militia asked the War Department for the loan of 500 muskets. Five hundred volunteers were mobilized nether Brig. Gen. Richard K. Call. Indian war parties raided farms and settlements, and families fled to forts, big towns, or out of the territory altogether. A state of war political party led by Osceola captured a Florida militia supply train, killing eight of its guards and wounding half dozen others. Most of the goods taken were recovered by the militia in another fight a few days later. Sugar plantations along the Atlantic coast south of St. Augustine were destroyed, with many of the slaves on the plantations joining the Seminoles.[41]

Other warchiefs such as Halleck Tustenuggee, Jumper, and Black Seminoles Abraham and John Equus caballus continued the Seminole resistance confronting the regular army. The state of war concluded, after a full decade of fighting, in 1842. The U.S. government is estimated to have spent about $20,000,000 on the war, at the fourth dimension an astronomical sum, and equal to $561,586,207 today. Many Indians were forcibly exiled to Creek lands westward of the Mississippi; others retreated into the Everglades. In the end, the authorities gave up trying to subjugate the Seminole in their Everglades redoubts and left fewer than 500 Seminoles in peace. Other scholars state that at to the lowest degree several hundred Seminoles remained in the Everglades later on the Seminole Wars.[42]

As a result of the Seminole Wars, the surviving Seminole band of the Everglades claims to be the but federally recognized Indian nation which never relinquished sovereignty or signed a peace treaty with the United States.

In full general the American people tended to view the Indian resistance as unwarranted. An article published past the Virginia Enquirer on Jan 26, 1836, called the "Hostilities of the Seminoles", assigned all the blame for the violence that came from the Seminole'due south resistance to the Seminoles themselves. The article accuses the Indians of non staying truthful to their discussion—the promises they supposedly made in the treaties and negotiations from the Indian Removal Act.[43]

Creek dissolution

After the War of 1812, some Muscogee leaders such as William McIntosh signed treaties that ceded more land to Georgia. The 1814 signing of the Treaty of Fort Jackson signaled the stop for the Creek Nation and for all Indians in the South.[44] Friendly Creek leaders, like Selocta and Big Warrior, addressed Sharp Knife (the Indian nickname for Andrew Jackson) and reminded him that they proceed the peace. Nevertheless, Jackson retorted that they did not "cutting (Tecumseh's) throat" when they had the take chances, so they must now cede Creek lands. Jackson also ignored Article nine of the Treaty of Ghent that restored sovereignty to Indians and their nations.

Jackson opened this start peace session by faintly acknowledging the help of the friendly Creeks. That done, he turned to the Red Sticks and admonished them for listening to evil counsel. For their crime, he said, the entire Creek Nation must pay. He demanded the equivalent of all expenses incurred by the Usa in prosecuting the state of war, which by his calculation came to 23,000,000 acres (93,000 km2) of land.

—Robert V. Remini, Andrew Jackson [44]

Somewhen, the Creek Confederacy enacted a police that made further state cessions a majuscule criminal offence. Nonetheless, on February 12, 1825, McIntosh and other chiefs signed the Treaty of Indian Springs, which gave up nearly of the remaining Creek lands in Georgia.[45] After the U.Southward. Senate ratified the treaty, McIntosh was assassinated on April thirty, 1825, by Creeks led by Menawa.

The Creek National Council, led by Opothle Yohola, protested to the United States that the Treaty of Indian Springs was fraudulent. President John Quincy Adams was sympathetic, and eventually the treaty was nullified in a new agreement, the Treaty of Washington (1826).[46] The historian R. Douglas Hurt wrote: "The Creeks had accomplished what no Indian nation had ever done or would exercise again—accomplish the annulment of a ratified treaty."[47] Notwithstanding, Governor George Troup of Georgia ignored the new treaty and began to forcibly remove the Indians under the terms of the earlier treaty. At first, President Adams attempted to intervene with federal troops, just Troup chosen out the militia, and Adams, fearful of a civil war, conceded. As he explained to his intimates, "The Indians are not worth going to war over."

Although the Creeks had been forced from Georgia, with many Lower Creeks moving to the Indian Territory, in that location were still nearly xx,000 Upper Creeks living in Alabama. However, the state moved to cancel tribal governments and extend state laws over the Creeks. Opothle Yohola appealed to the administration of President Andrew Jackson for protection from Alabama; when none was forthcoming, the Treaty of Cusseta was signed on March 24, 1832, which divided up Creek lands into individual allotments.[48] Creeks could either sell their allotments and receive funds to remove to the westward, or stay in Alabama and submit to state laws. The Creeks were never given a off-white chance to comply with the terms of the treaty, nevertheless. Rampant illegal settlement of their lands by Americans continued unabated with federal and state government unable or unwilling to practice much to halt it. Further, equally recently detailed by historian Billy Winn in his thorough chronicle of the events leading to removal, a variety of fraudulent schemes designed to cheat the Creeks out of their allotments, many of them organized by speculators operating out of Columbus, Georgia and Montgomery, Alabama, were perpetrated after the signing of the Treaty of Cusseta.[49] A portion of the beleaguered Creeks, many desperately poor and feeling abused and oppressed past their American neighbors, struck back by carrying out occasional raids on expanse farms and committing other isolated acts of violence. Escalating tensions erupted into open war with the United States after the destruction of the village of Roanoke, Georgia, located along the Chattahoochee River on the boundary between Creek and American territory, in May 1836. During the so-called "Creek State of war of 1836" Secretarial assistant of War Lewis Cass dispatched General Winfield Scott to finish the violence by forcibly removing the Creeks to the Indian Territory due west of the Mississippi River. With the Indian Removal Deed of 1830 information technology connected into 1835 and afterward as in 1836 over 15,000 Creeks were driven from their land for the last time. 3,500 of those fifteen,000 Creeks did not survive the trip to Oklahoma where they eventually settled.[30]

Chickasaw budgetary removal

The Chickasaw received financial compensation from the United States for their lands east of the Mississippi River. In 1836, the Chickasaws had reached an understanding to buy country from the previously removed Choctaws after a bitter v-twelvemonth debate. They paid the Choctaws $530,000 (equal to $xiii,078,152 today) for the westernmost part of the Choctaw land. The offset group of Chickasaws moved in 1836 and was led by John M. Millard. The Chickasaws gathered at Memphis on July four, 1836, with all of their assets—belongings, livestock, and slaves. One time across the Mississippi River, they followed routes previously established past the Choctaws and the Creeks. In one case in Indian Territory, the Chickasaws merged with the Choctaw nation.

Cherokee forced relocation

Cherokee Principal Chief John Ross, photographed before his decease in 1866

By 1838, about two,000 Cherokee had voluntarily relocated from Georgia to Indian Territory (nowadays day Oklahoma). Forcible removals began in May 1838 when General Winfield Scott received a final order from President Martin Van Buren to relocate the remaining Cherokees.[30] Approximately iv,000 Cherokees died in the ensuing trek to Oklahoma.[50] In the Cherokee linguistic communication, the event is called nu na da ul tsun yi ("the identify where they cried") or nu na hi du na tlo hi lu i (the trail where they cried). The Cherokee Trail of Tears resulted from the enforcement of the Treaty of New Echota, an agreement signed under the provisions of the Indian Removal Human activity of 1830, which exchanged Indian state in the East for lands west of the Mississippi River, but which was never accepted by the elected tribal leadership or a majority of the Cherokee people.[51]

The sparsely inhabited Cherokee lands were highly attractive to Georgian farmers experiencing population pressure, and illegal settlements resulted. Long-simmering tensions between Georgia and the Cherokee Nation were brought to a crunch by the discovery of gilt about Dahlonega, Georgia, in 1829, resulting in the Georgia Gold Rush, the second gold rush in U.S. history. Hopeful gold speculators began trespassing on Cherokee lands, and pressure mounted to fulfill the Compact of 1802 in which the US Government promised to extinguish Indian country claims in the state of Georgia.

When Georgia moved to extend state laws over Cherokee lands in 1830, the thing went to the U.S. Supreme Court. In Cherokee Nation five. Georgia (1831), the Marshall courtroom ruled that the Cherokee Nation was not a sovereign and independent nation, and therefore refused to hear the case. However, in Worcester v. Georgia (1832), the Court ruled that Georgia could not impose laws in Cherokee territory, since only the national government—non state governments—had authorization in Indian affairs. Worcester v Georgia is associated with Andrew Jackson's famous, though apocryphal, quote "John Marshall has made his decision; at present let him enforce it!" In reality, this quote did not announced until 30 years after the incident and was first printed in a textbook authored past Jackson critic Horace Greeley.[26]

Elizabeth "Betsy" Brown Stephens (1903), a Cherokee Indian who walked the Trail of Tears in 1838

Fearing open warfare betwixt federal troops and the Georgia militia, Jackson decided not to enforce Cherokee claims against the state of Georgia. He was already embroiled in a ramble crisis with South Carolina (i.east. the nullification crisis) and favored Cherokee relocation over ceremonious state of war.[26] With the Indian Removal Human activity of 1830, the U.S. Congress had given Jackson authorisation to negotiate removal treaties, exchanging Indian land in the E for land west of the Mississippi River. Jackson used the dispute with Georgia to put force per unit area on the Cherokees to sign a removal treaty.

The final treaty, passed in Congress by a single vote, and signed by President Andrew Jackson, was imposed by his successor President Martin Van Buren. Van Buren allowed Georgia, Tennessee, Due north Carolina, and Alabama an armed force of 7,000 militiamen, ground forces regulars, and volunteers under General Winfield Scott to relocate about thirteen,000 Cherokees to Cleveland, Tennessee. After the initial roundup, the U.South. military machine oversaw the emigration to Oklahoma. Former Cherokee lands were immediately opened to settlement. Nearly of the deaths during the journey were acquired by disease, malnutrition, and exposure during an unusually common cold winter.[52]

In the winter of 1838 the Cherokee began the 1,000-mile (1,600 km) march with scant wearable and almost on foot without shoes or moccasins. The march began in Ruddy Clay, Tennessee, the location of the last Eastern majuscule of the Cherokee Nation. Because of the diseases, the Indians were not immune to go into whatever towns or villages along the manner; many times this meant traveling much farther to go around them.[53] After crossing Tennessee and Kentucky, they arrived at the Ohio River beyond from Golconda in southern Illinois nearly the 3rd of December 1838. Hither the starving Indians were charged a dollar a head (equal to $25.45 today) to cross the river on "Berry's Ferry" which typically charged twelve cents, equal to $three.05 today. They were not immune passage until the ferry had serviced all others wishing to cross and were forced to take shelter under "Mantle Rock", a shelter barefaced on the Kentucky side, until "Berry had zippo meliorate to practice". Many died huddled together at Pall Rock waiting to cross. Several Cherokee were murdered by locals. The Cherokee filed a lawsuit against the U.S. Authorities through the courthouse in Vienna, suing the government for $35 a head (equal to $890.64 today) to coffin the murdered Cherokee.[53]

Every bit they crossed southern Illinois, on December 26, Martin Davis, Commissary Amanuensis for Moses Daniel's detachment, wrote:

There is the coldest weather in Illinois I ever experienced anywhere. The streams are all frozen over something like 8 or 12 inches [twenty or 30 cm] thick. We are compelled to cut through the ice to get water for ourselves and animals. Information technology snows here every two or 3 days at the fartherest. Nosotros are now camped in Mississippi [River] swamp four miles (half dozen km) from the river, and there is no possible chance of crossing the river for the numerous quantity of ice that comes floating downwardly the river every day. We accept only traveled 65 miles (105 km) on the final month, including the time spent at this identify, which has been about three weeks. It is unknown when we shall cross the river....[54]

A volunteer soldier from Georgia who participated in the removal recounted:

I fought through the civil war and have seen men shot to pieces and slaughtered by thousands, only the Cherokee removal was the cruelest work I always knew.[55]

A Trail of Tears map of Southern Illinois from the USDA – U.S. Forest Service

It eventually took almost iii months to cross the 60 miles (97 kilometres) on state between the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers.[56] The trek through southern Illinois is where the Cherokee suffered well-nigh of their deaths. Withal a few years before forced removal, some Cherokee who opted to leave their homes voluntarily chose a water-based route through the Tennessee, Ohio and Mississippi rivers. It took only 21 days, simply the Cherokee who were forcibly relocated were wary of water travel.[57]

Removed Cherokees initially settled near Tahlequah, Oklahoma. When signing the Treaty of New Echota in 1835 Major Ridge said "I accept signed my death warrant." The resulting political turmoil led to the killings of Major Ridge, John Ridge, and Elias Boudinot; of the leaders of the Treaty Party, only Stand Watie escaped expiry.[58] The population of the Cherokee Nation eventually rebounded, and today the Cherokees are the largest American Indian grouping in the United states of america.[59]

There were some exceptions to removal. Approximately 100 Cherokees evaded the U.S. soldiers and lived off the land in Georgia and other states. Those Cherokees who lived on individual, individually owned lands (rather than communally owned tribal country) were not bailiwick to removal. In Due north Carolina, nearly 400 Cherokees, sometimes referred to equally the Oconaluftee Cherokee due to their settlement nigh to the river of the same name, lived on land in the Great Smoky Mountains owned by a white man named William Holland Thomas (who had been adopted by Cherokees as a boy), and were thus not discipline to removal. Added to this were some 200 Cherokee from the Nantahala area allowed to stay in the Qualla Purlieus after profitable the U.S. Army in hunting down and capturing the family of the old prophet, Tsali (who faced a firing squad after capture). These North Carolina Cherokees became the Eastern Band of the Cherokee Nation.

A local newspaper, the Highland Messenger, said July 24, 1840, "that between nine hundred and a yard of these deluded beings … are all the same hovering most the homes of their fathers, in the counties of Macon and Cherokee" and "that they are a bang-up annoyance to the citizens" who wanted to buy land there believing the Cherokee were gone; the newspaper reported that President Martin Van Buren said "they … are, in his stance, costless to go or stay.'[threescore]

Eastern Cherokee Restitution

The United states Courtroom of Claims ruled in favor of the Eastern Cherokee Nation'due south claim against the U.Southward. on May 18, 1905. This resulted in the appropriation of $1 million (equal to $27,438,023.04 today) to the Nation's eligible individuals and families. Interior Department employee Guion Miller created a listing using several rolls and applications to verify tribal enrollment for the distribution of funds, known as the Guion Miller Ringlet. The applications received documented over 125,000 individuals; the courtroom approved more than 30,000 individuals to share in the funds.[61] [ page needed ]

Statistics

Southern removals
Nation Population before removal Treaty and year Major emigration Full removed Number remaining Deaths during removal Deaths from warfare
Choctaw 19,554[62] + white citizens of the Choctaw Nation + 500 Black slaves Dancing Rabbit Creek (1830) 1831–1836 15,000[63] five,000–6,000[64] [65] [66] two,000–4,000+ (cholera) none
Creek (Muscogee) 22,700 + 900 Blackness slaves[67] Cusseta (1832) 1834–1837 19,600[68] Several hundred 3,500 (disease after removal)[69] Unknown (Creek War of 1836)
Chickasaw iv,914 + one,156 Blackness slaves[70] Pontotoc Creek (1832) 1837–1847 over 4,000[70] Several hundred 500–800 none
Cherokee 16,542 + 201 married white + i,592 Blackness slaves[71] New Echota (1835) 1836–1838 16,000[72] 1,500 ii,000–iv,000[73] [74] none
Seminole 3,700–5,000[75] + avoiding slaves Payne's Landing (1832) 1832–1842 2,833[76]–iv,000[77] 250[76]–500[78] 700 (Second Seminole War)

Landmarks and commemorations

Map of National Historic trails

In 1987, about two,200 miles (3,500 km) of trails were authorized by federal law to mark the removal of 17 detachments of the Cherokee people.[79] Chosen the Trail of Tears National Celebrated Trail, information technology traverses portions of ix states and includes land and water routes.[lxxx]

Trail of Tears outdoor historical drama, Unto These Hills

A historical drama based on the Trail of Tears, Unto These Hills written past Kermit Hunter, has sold over v million tickets for its performances since its opening on July 1, 1950, both touring and at the outdoor Mountainside Theater of the Cherokee Historical Association in Cherokee, Due north Carolina.[81] [82]

Commemorative medallion

Cherokee artist Troy Anderson was commissioned to design the Cherokee Trail of Tears Sesquicentennial Commemorative Medallion. The falling-tear medallion shows a seven-pointed star, the symbol of the seven clans of the Cherokees.[83]

In literature and oral history

  • Family Stories From the Trail of Tears is a collection edited past Lorrie Montiero and transcribed by Grant Foreman, taken from the Indian-Pioneer History Collection[84]
  • Walking the Trail (1991) is a book by Jerry Ellis describing his 900-mile walk retracing of the Trail of Tears in reverse

Meet besides

  • Long Walk of the Navajo, a later forced removal
  • California Genocide
  • Northern Cheyenne Exodus
  • Potawatomi Trail of Expiry
  • Timeline of Cherokee removal

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Bibliography

  • Anderson, William, ed. (1991). Cherokee Removal: Earlier and After. Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press. ISBN978-0-8203-1482-ii.
  • Bealer, Alex W. (1996) [1972]. Only the Names Remain: The Cherokees and The Trail of Tears . Boston, Massachusetts: Little, Dark-brown. ISBN978-0-316-08519-9.
  • Carter, Samuel (1976). Cherokee Dusk: A Nation Betrayed. New York: Doubleday. ISBN0-385-06735-6.
  • Ehle, John (1989) [1988]. Trail of Tears: The Rising and Fall of the Cherokee Nation . New York: Ballast Books. ISBN0-385-23954-8.
  • Fitzgerald, David; King, Duane (2008). The Cherokee Trail of Tears. Portland, Oregon: Graphic Arts Books. ISBN978-0-88240-752-four.
  • Foreman, Grant (1989) [1932]. Indian Removal: The Emigration of the Five Civilized Tribes of Indians (11 ed.). Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Printing. ISBN0-8061-1172-0.
  • Gregg, Matthew T. and David Thousand. Wishart. "The price of Cherokee removal". Explorations in Economical History Volume 49, Issue 4, Oct 2012, Pages 423–442
  • Jahoda, Gloria (1995) [1975]. Trail of Tears: The Story of the American Indian Removal 1813–1855. Henry Holt & Co. ISBN978-0-517-14677-4.
  • Mooney, James (2007) [1888]. King, Duane (ed.). Myths of the Cherokee. New York: Barnes & Noble. ISBN978-0-7607-8340-5.
  • Perdue, Theda; Green, Michael (2008) [2007]. The Cherokee Nation and the Trail of Tears. New York: Penguin Books. ISBN978-0-14-311367-6.
  • Prucha, Francis (1984). The Great Begetter: The United States Government and the American Indians. Lincoln, Nebraska: Nebraska Press. ISBN0-8032-3668-9.
  • Remini, Robert (2001). Andrew Jackson and his Indian Wars. New York: Viking. ISBN0-670-91025-ii.
  • Wallace, Anthony (1993). The Long, Bitter Trail: Andrew Jackson and the Indians (Hardback ed.). New York: Colina and Wang. ISBN0-8090-6631-nine.
  • Wilson, James (1998). The Globe Shall Weep: A History of Native America. New York: Grove Press. ISBN978-0-8021-3680-0.
  • Winn, William W. (2015). The Triumph of the Ecunnau-Nuxulgee: Country Speculators, George One thousand. Troup, State Rights, and the Removal of the Creek Indians from Georgia and Alabama, 1825-38. Macon: Mercer University Press. 9780881465228.

Documents

  • U.S. Senate (April 15–17, 1830). Cherokee Indian Removal Contend. Archived from the original on February 6, 2009.
  • Scott, Winfield (May 10, 1838). Winfield Scott'south Address to the Cherokee Nation. Archived from the original on October 6, 2008.
  • Gen. Winfield Scott's Order to U.Southward. Troops Assigned to the Cherokee Removal. Cherokee Agency. May 17, 1838. Archived from the original on December 27, 2008.

External links

  • The Trail of Tears: Cherokee Legacy; 2006 documentary directed by Chip Richie and narrated by James Earl Jones
  • Trail of Tears National Historic Trail (U.Southward. National Park Service)
  • Seminole Tribe of Florida History: Indian Resistance and Removal Archived 2016-04-29 at the Wayback Machine
  • Muscogee (Creek) Removal
  • Cherokee Heritage Documentation Center
  • Cherokee Nation Cultural Resource Center
  • Trail of Tears - The Dream We Dreamed
  • The Trail of Tears and the Forced Relocation of the Cherokee Nation, a National Park Service Instruction with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan
  • Trail of Tears Roll, Access genealogy
  • Trail of Tears historical marking

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